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The Measurement of Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals
Theodore M. Singelis
University of Hawaii & East-West Center, Program for Cultural Studies, teds{at}uhunix.uhcc.hawaii.edu
Following concepts introduced by Markus and Kitayama, this study describes the theoretical and empirical development of a scale to measure the strength of an individual's interdependent and independent self-construals. These two images of self are conceptualized as reflecting the emphasis on connectedness and relations often found in non-Western cultures (interdependent) and the separateness and uniqueness of the individual (independent) stressed in the West. It is argued that these two images of self can and do coexist in individuals and that they can be measured. A 24-item Self-Construal Scale measuring two dimensions of self-image is presented. The two distinct dimensions of the scale were supported in confirmatory factor analyses of two multiethnic samples of college students. The scale was found to have satisfactory reliability and validity. Its implications and potential applications are discussed.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 5,
580-591 (1994)
DOI: 10.1177/0146167294205014
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J. Kurman
Self-Enhancement: Is it Restricted to Individualistic Cultures?
Pers Soc Psychol Bull,
December 1, 2001;
27(12):
1705 - 1716.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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L. G. Conway III, A. G. Ryder, R. G. Tweed, and B. W. Sokol
Intranational Cultural Variation: Exploring Further Implications of Collectivism within the United States
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
November 1, 2001;
32(6):
681 - 697.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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R. A. R. Gurung, B. R. Sarason, and I. G. Sarason
Predicting Relationship Quality and Emotional Reactions to Stress from Significant-Other-Concept Clarity
Pers Soc Psychol Bull,
October 1, 2001;
27(10):
1267 - 1276.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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J. Aaker and B. Schmitt
Culture-Dependent Assimilation and Differentiation of the Self: Preferences for Consumption Symbols in the United States and China
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
September 1, 2001;
32(5):
561 - 576.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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F. M. Cheung, K. Leung, J.-X. Zhang, H.-F. Sun, Y.-Q. Gan, W.-Z. Song, and D. Xie
Indigenous Chinese Personality Constructs: Is the Five-Factor Model Complete?
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
July 1, 2001;
32(4):
407 - 433.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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S. E. Cross and N. V. Vick
The Interdependent Self-Construal and Social Support: The Case of Persistence in Engineering
Pers Soc Psychol Bull,
July 1, 2001;
27(7):
820 - 832.
[Abstract]
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H. M. Coon and M. Kemmelmeier
Cultural Orientations in the United States: (Re)Examining Differences among Ethnic Groups
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
May 1, 2001;
32(3):
348 - 364.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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U. Kuhnen, B. Hannover, U. Roeder, A. A. Shah, B. Schubert, A. Upmeyer, and S. Zakaria
Cross-Cultural Variations in Identifying Embedded Figures: Comparisons from the United States, Germany, Russia, and Malaysia
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
May 1, 2001;
32(3):
366 - 372.
[Abstract]
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J. G. Oetzel
Self-Construals, Communication Processes, and Group Outcomes in Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Groups
Small Group Research,
February 1, 2001;
32(1):
19 - 54.
[Abstract]
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J. B. ELLIS and G. M. WITTENBAUM
Relationships Between Self-Construal and Verbal Promotion
Communication Research,
December 1, 2000;
27(6):
704 - 722.
[Abstract]
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G. J. Westerhof, F. Dittmann-Kohli, and M. W. Katzko
Individualism and Collectivism in the Personal Meaning System of Elderly Adults: The United States and Congo/Zaire as an Example
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
November 1, 2000;
31(6):
649 - 676.
[Abstract]
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S. Okazaki
Asian American and White American Differences on Affective Distress Symptoms: Do Symptom Reports Differ Across Reporting Methods?
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
September 1, 2000;
31(5):
603 - 625.
[Abstract]
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K. H. Poasa, B. Mallinckrodt, and L. A. Suzuki
Causal Attributions for Problematic Family Interactions: A Qualitative, Cultural Comparison of Western Samoa, American Samoa, and the United States
The Counseling Psychologist,
January 1, 2000;
28(1):
32 - 60.
[Abstract]
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D. S. Krull, M. H.-M. Loy, J. Lin, C.-F. Wang, S. Chen, and X. Zhao
The Fundamental Fundamental Attribution Error: Correspondence Bias in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Pers Soc Psychol Bull,
October 1, 1999;
25(10):
1208 - 1219.
[Abstract]
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S. M. Stewart, M. H. Bond, O. Deeds, and S. F. Chung
Intergenerational Patterns of Values and Autonomy Expectations in Cultures of Relatedness and Separateness
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
September 1, 1999;
30(5):
575 - 593.
[Abstract]
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R. W. Tafarodi, J. M. Lang, and A. J. Smith
Self-Esteem and the Cultural Trade-Off: Evidence for the Role of Individualism-Collectivism
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
September 1, 1999;
30(5):
620 - 640.
[Abstract]
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S. D. Grimm, A. T. Church, M. S. Katigbak, and J. A. S. Reyes
Self-Described Traits, Values, and Moods Associated with Individualism and Collectivism: Testing I-C Theory in an Individualistic (U.S.) and a Collectivistic (Philippine) Culture
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
July 1, 1999;
30(4):
466 - 500.
[Abstract]
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T. M. Singelis, M. H. Bond, W. F. Sharkey, and C. S. Y. Lai
Unpackaging Culture's Influence on Self-Esteem and Embarrassability: The Role of Self-Construals
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
May 1, 1999;
30(3):
315 - 341.
[Abstract]
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C. W. Stephan, W. G. Stephan, I. Saito, and S. M. Barnett
Emotional Expression in Japan and the United States: The Nonmonolithic Nature of Individualism and Collectivism
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
November 1, 1998;
29(6):
728 - 748.
[Abstract]
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S. Oishi, U. Schimmack, E. Diener, and E. M. Suh
The Measurement of Values and Individualism-Collectivism
Pers Soc Psychol Bull,
November 1, 1998;
24(11):
1177 - 1189.
[Abstract]
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P. C. Earley and C. B. Gibson
Taking Stock in Our Progress on Individualism-Collectivism: 100 Years of Solidarity and Community
Journal of Management,
June 1, 1998;
24(3):
265 - 304.
[Abstract]
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C. Lay, P. Fairlie, S. Jackson, T. Ricci, J. Eisenberg, T. Sato, A. Teeaar, and A. Melamud
Domain-Specific Allocentrism-Idiocentrism: A Measure of Family Connectedness
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
May 1, 1998;
29(3):
434 - 460.
[Abstract]
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O. Ybarra and D. Trafimow
How Priming the Private Self or Collective Self Affects the Relative Weights of Attitudes and Subjective Norms
Pers Soc Psychol Bull,
April 1, 1998;
24(4):
362 - 370.
[Abstract]
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